Chemical Equilibrium: Le Chatelier Principle Essay

This experiment entitled â€Å"Chemical Equilibrium† aims to help students to investigate the effects of concentration and temperature upon the position of equilibrium in a cobalt chloride solution, Co(H2O)62+. In this experiment, cobalt crystal is dissolved with distilled water and ethanol which the initial colour is purple-pinkish and a few drops of concentration of HCl is added to the test tube, the final colour is in deep blue colour. Upon the effect of concentration and temperature, the equilibrium will shift backward in the reaction with accordance with Le Chatelier’s principle producing more HCl molecules. This means that equilibrium rate of forward and backward reactions were met. In result, this reaction is endothermic. Introduction Chemical equilibrium is the state in which a chemical reaction proceeds at the same rate as its reverse reaction; the rate of forward and reverse reaction are equal, and the concentration of the reactants and products stop changing1. When this condition was met, there was no change in the proportions of the various compounds involved, and the reaction ceases to progress. The equilibrium state has a dynamic – that is, active – nature being characterized by the simultaneous and continuous formation of products from the reactants and reactants from the products2. But these simultaneous reactions do not necessarily follow that the concentrations of the reactants is equal to that of the product(s). Instead, the ratio of the concentrations of the reactants to the concentration of the product(s) raised to their coefficient in the balanced equation is Keq, a constant. Taking the Le Chatelier’s principle into consideration, there are factors that may shift or influence the position of equilibrium4. The Le Chatelier’s principle states that if stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the equilibrium will tend to shift in the direction which will relieve the applied stress. Some factors that can affect are concentration, temperature and pressure. Alterations in the system’s conditions at equilibrium may favour either a forward or backward shift. The objectives of the experiment are: to evaluate how the change in concentration and the change in temperature affect the equilibrium system, to explain the effects of these changes in the equilibrium system, and to interpret the results based on the Le Chatelier’s principle. Experiment Materials & Equipments: †¢3 Test tubes †¢Cold water bath †¢Concentrated HCl †¢60mL of Ethanol †¢Cobalt (II) Chloride crystal †¢Silver Nitrate (AgNO3) †¢H2O, distilled water Changes in color (specifically intensity), appearances and reactions should be observed and taken note of throughout the experiment. To begin this experiment, cobalt (II) chloride crystal is added into a new test tube and dissolve it with distilled water. Make sure the solution is mixed well before adding concentration of HCl. Continuously adding drops of concentration of HCl into the test tube until the solution turns deep blue in colour. After that, separate the new solution to 2 new test tube. Test tube 1 is placed into a cold water bath to analyse the final colour of the solution when it encounters cool surrounding. Silver nitrate (AgNO3) is added into test tube 2 and is mixed well. Observations were recorded, and direction of shift was deduced from the observations. If the reagent caused the mixture to shift to a lighter colour, then the direction of shift is backward. If the reagent caused the mixture to shift to a darker colour, then the direction of shift is forward.

Organizational Interventions Influencing Employee

Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Oxford, UK and Malden, USAIJTDInternational Journal of Training and Development1360-3736Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005March 2005 14761ArticlesOrganizational Interventions 9 International Journal of Training and Development 9:1 ISSN 1360-3736 Organizational interventions in? uencing employee career development preferred by different career success orientations Namhee Kim This study explores what Korean employees prefer as organizational interventions that in? ence their career development, according to their personal interpretation of career success. A quantitative sample survey was designed from a Korean wireless communications company using a survey instrument. The ? ndings of this study contributed to the validation of theoretical discussions on the association of individuals and organizational career development interventions, implying that organizations need to design their career mobility systems or performance incentive systems in accordance with emplo yees’ career orientations.Introduction Market changes often necessitate substantial transformation in organizations via reorganizing, restructuring or downsizing (Gutteridge et al. , 1993). The characteristics of employees have changed as well. One of the biggest issues facing organizations is the increasing diversity of the modern workforce. Determining how to manage and develop today’s workforce effectively from the perspective of career development has become a critical issue at the organizational level. Companies must ? d ways to match organizational goals and needs with those of individuals, but employees’ internal orientations are often left largely uninvestigated r Research Fellow, Korean Women’s Development Institute, 1-363 Bulkwang-dong, Eunpyong-gu, Seoul 122-707, Korea. Email: [email  protected] re. kr  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main St. , Malden, MA 02148, USA. Organizational Interve ntions 47 in the design and implementation of organizational interventions.This study explores Korean employees’ perspectives on organizational interventions that in? uence their career development, according to personal de? nitions of career success. Answers to this research question will help organizations design and implement more effective employee career development policies and activities. Theories of career orientation Traditional career theories de? ned success in terms of extrinsic or objective factors with visible metrics, such as salary, promotions or status (e. g. Gattiker & Larwood, 1989; Jaskolka et al. , 1985).Therefore, hierarchical advancement, larger income and increasing recognition and respect from others typically indicated success at work. On the other hand, some researchers have investigated careers from an internal, subjective perspective. Schein examined individuals’ subjective ideas about work life and their roles within it (van Maanen & Schei n, 1977). He identi? ed the concept of a ‘career anchor’, which is an occupational self-concept or self-knowledge that ‘serves to guide, constrain, stabilize and integrate the person’s career’ (Schein, 1978: 127). Schein (1978) identi? d ? ve types of career anchors: managerial competence, autonomy, security, technical/functional competence, and entrepreneurial creativity. Later, three more types were added: service/dedication to a cause, pure challenge, and life style. Delong (1982) proposed replacing the term ‘career anchor’ with ‘career orientation’, meaning the capacity to select certain features of an occupation for investment according to one’s motives, interests and competencies. He identi? ed three new types of career orientation (identity, service, and variety), in addition to Schein’s (1978) ? e original career anchors. Driver (1979, 1980, 1982) studied business executives and staff specialists in a v ariety of companies, identifying four ‘career concepts’ (transitory, steady-state, linear, and spiral) from self-perceptions based on habits of thought, motives and decision-making styles. These career concepts become the guiding foundation for a person’s long-term career choices (Driver, 1980). Derr (1986) used the term ‘career success orientation’ to refer to how people de? ne their success at work, and argued that an individual’s meaning of career success re? cts their personal values, attitudes and motivation with regard to work and life. Career success orientation can vary considerably given the diversity of the modern workforce and its work values. To describe patterns of career success orientation, Derr (1986) developed a minimum set of useful dimensions based on his research with the US Navy, MBA students and multinational executives. Derr’s ? ve dimensions of career success orientations are: 1. Getting ahead: Traditionally, thi s type was assumed to be typical career orientation for most people who want to succeed in their career.Individuals who exhibit these characteristics pursue upward mobility in organizations. Advancement in status and increased responsibility, authority and opportunities are also attractive to this type. People in this type enjoy wealth and prestige. Getting free: Individuals in this type avoid any restrictions and pursue personal freedom at work. They often like to create their own service or product, enjoying a variety of different experiences. The desire to maintain autonomy at work is the strongest work value. Independence and being free from external interruption make the ideal work situation.Getting secure: Individuals in this type value stability, predictability or security at work. Guaranteed long-term job security is desirable. They are loyal to their organizations and commit themselves seriously to the company. Gaining secure jobs and feeling recognized by their organizatio ns are closely related to their personal meaning of career success. To this type of people, stability is more important than getting ahead. Getting high: Individuals with these characteristics pursue technical or functional expertise in one area and want to test their talents and skills. Excitement is very important to them.They long for continued growth and dedicate themselves to  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005. 2. 3. 4. 48 International Journal of Training and Development 5. self-renewing experiences, and consider success as doing what they like. Being an expert in their interest areas is an uppermost goal of their career. Getting balanced: Individuals who exhibit these characteristics pursue a balanced professional and personal life. They enjoy working in an environment that respects personal and family life. People view their career success in relation to other aspects of life, including family and personal development.To them, the meaning of career success cannot be separat ed from the value of family and personal relationships. The emergence of this career type re? ects the diversity of the workforce and work values in recent decades (Derr, 1986). Hall (1976) introduced the concept of the ‘protean career’, characterized by individuals taking the lead in career management, driven by the change of personal rather than organizational needs. He even argued that the ‘career’ no longer exists within organizations (1996). Similarly, Arthur and Rousseau (1996) described modern careers as ‘boundaryless’, defying traditional assumptions about organizational careers.Recent literature, including Hall’s work in 2002, indicates the importance of the individual career, particularly its internal aspects. Baruch (2004) summarized current measures of individual career success as ‘a multi-level set of self-development targets; gaining employability; making lateral transitions for enrichment . . . ; undertaking selfmana gement and entrepreneurship . . . ; and achieving a better and richer quality of life’ (2004: 76). A comparison of the concepts of career anchor, career orientation, career concept, and career success orientation (as well as other recent trends) allows ? e types of commonly identi? ed career orientation to be determined, as presented in Table 1. This table shows that although scholars researched career orientations at different times and used different criteria and terms, the common categories of career orientation can be identi? ed. The categories of personal de? nition of career success also tend to follow a similar framework. Since career orientation is likely to determine (or at least in? uence) an individual’s occupational decisions, it has been hypothesized that this orientation can in? uence their willingness to participate in speci? career development activities (Watts, 1989). However, little literature has empirically explored the relationship between career s uccess orientation and career development intervention. In this study, the career orientations of Korean employees are ? rst explored in terms of Derr’s (1986) framework of career success orientation. Organizational interventions in? uencing employee career development (ECD) The term ‘organizational interventions in? uencing ECD’ is de? ned as organizationinitiated policies or activities that could affect ECD, directly or indirectly. According to Wils et al. 1993), there are three types of career development activities currently conducted in organizations. Speci? cally, 14 activities are identi? ed with three different foci: 1. 2. 3. Impersonal career, focusing on three internal staf? ng activities: job posting, promotion-from-within and lateral mobility. Organizational career, consisting of ? ve organization-oriented activities: succession planning, high potential management, data collection on employees, job matching and data collection on future jobs. Individu al career, subsuming two individual-oriented activities: career planning and career counselling.In addition to these direct interventions, some organizational policies or activities may in? uence ECD indirectly (Watts, 1989). For instance, employee compensation and bene? ts can enhance or impede ECD, affecting critical career decisions. Employee assessment is often understood as a management function, but it can and should be approached from a career development perspective as well (Baruch, 2004; Iles, 1999).  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005. Organizational Interventions 49 Table 1: Comparison of theories of career orientation 50 International Journal of Training and Development  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005.Types Description of common characteristics †¢ Advancing up the organizational hierarchy †¢ Increased responsibility, authority †¢ High status, prestige, income †¢ Recognized expertise in one area †¢ Excitement to test one’s talents and s kills †¢ Continued growth and experience †¢ Stability, predictability, security †¢ Long-term commitment, loyalty †¢ Maintenance of freedom, avoidance of restrictions †¢ Creation of own service or product †¢ A variety of different experiences †¢ A balanced life †¢ Respect for personal and family life †¢ Flexible time and job sharing †¢ Dedication to a cause, making a contribution to improve the worldSchein’s (1978) career anchor General management competence Technical/ functional competence or pure challenge Security/ stability Autonomy/ independence or entrepreneurial creativity Life style Delong’s (1982) career orientation Managerial competence/ identity Technical/ functional competence Driver’s (1980) career concept Linear Derr’s (1986) career success orientation Getting ahead Baruch’s (2004) measures of career success Self-development competencies Type 1 Type 2 Spiral Getting high Lateral transit ions; spiral movements Type 3 Type 4Security Autonomy, creativity, or variety Steady-state Transitory Getting secure Getting free Employability Self-management; entrepreneurship Type 5 Getting balanced Service Self-perceived attitudes, values and needs Frequency, time, Subjective direction of career de? nition of change success Quality of life; work-family balance Other types Criteria of typology Service/ dedication to a cause Self-perceived talents, values and motives Source: N. Kim (2004). Career success orientation of Korean women bank employees, Career Development International, 9(6), p. 98. Many organizations do not consider such activities a part of ECD (Watts, 1989). In this regard, career systems in organizations are closely linked to human resource management systems, or employee relations, and are integrated into those systems (Gutteridge et al. , 1993; Wils et al. , 1993). Recently, Baruch (2004) elaborated his six-dimension model of organizational career systems, which i ncludes involvement, sophistication & complexity, strategic orientation, developmental focus, organizational decision-making focus, and innovation.Among these, involvement, strategic orientation, developmental focus and organizational decision-making focus relate to the idea of organizational versus individualfocused dimensions (as found in Wils et al. , 1993), as well as the direct versus indirect intervention dimensions addressed by Watts (1989). Innovation and sophistication & complexity seem to be more methodological concerns; this is understandable since the model was designed to facilitate guidelines for evaluating organizational career systems.Given the de? nition and scope of organizational interventions in? uencing ECD, broad types of organization-initiated policies or activities can be categorized (Figure 1). Individual-focused activities partially or entirely allow individuals to make decisions about their participation. Accordingly, participants can take primary advantag e of the resulting bene? ts. Organizational-focused activities are operated primarily for organizational purposes, rather than individual bene? t.Further, indirect interventions can in? uence ECD, although they may not appear to be a part of ECD. This two-dimensional taxonomy of organizational interventions in? uencing ECD in Figure 1 provides a useful framework for understanding the various kinds of organizational interventions in? uencing ECD that have been identi? ed from the career literature, including personnel allocation systems, employee appraisal systems, training/development systems, career development (CD) support systems, and compensation/bene? s systems (Baruch, 2004; Derr, 1986; Noe et al. , 1996; Watts, 1989; Wils et al. , 1993). Under this taxonomy, 13 types of interventions can be summarized, as presented in Table 2. According to Table 2, succession planning, career paths, job posting/job matching, promotion/upward mobility, downward mobility, and job rotation/later al Direct ECD interventions Training/development systems Personnel allocation systems CD support systems Individualfocused Organization focused Compensation/benefits systemsEmployee appraisal systems Indirect interventions influencing ECD Figure 1: Two-dimensional taxonomy of organizational interventions in? uencing ECD.  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005. Organizational Interventions 51 Table 2: Organizational interventions in? uencing ECD Types of interventions Description Personnel allocation systems Succession planning Identifying and systematically developing high potential employees for certain key positions Career paths Structuring sequences of jobs or positions related to speci? career goals, such as managerial or technical career tracks Job posting/job Internal announcing of vacant job positions and matching matching internal individuals’ preferences with the job prior to external recruiting Promotion/upward Advancement in position with greater pay, challenges, mobi lity responsibility, and authority Downward mobility Moving to positions with a reduced level of responsibility and authority with an opportunity to develop skills and meet personal needs or interests Job rotation/lateral Systematically transferring employees laterally to another movement function or area over the course of time, not necessarily involving increased responsibilities or compensation Employee appraisal systems Assessment system Evaluating and collecting data on employees to discover their performance and potential, feedback can be given to employees Training/development systems Mentoring/coaching Assigning mentors or coaches (often supervisors or superiors) to employees to help them develop their careers Training/development Providing opportunities for career information workshops opportunities or training events that deal with career planning or transitions, self-assessment, or other career issues, or supporting individual efforts to learn and develop Career developme nt support systems Career counselling/ Providing counselling services and guides by professionals discussions (external or internal agency) or supervisors/managers to meet individual needs in employees’ careers Career information Building a system for sharing information about career system opportunities, such as various career paths or job vacancies, programmes and bene? ts offered through a variety of media Employee compensation/bene? ts systems Individual Adopting recognition systems for individual contributions compensation system to the organization (e. g. merit pay, individual incentives, stock options) Flexible bene? t plans Allowing diverse, ? exible options of bene? ts/rewards plans (e. g. , insurance or pension provisions, retirement plans, ? exible work schedule, part-time employment, child-care bene? ts, maternity and paternity leave) Note: Summarized from the literature (Baruch, 2004; Derr, 1986; Noe et al. , 1996; Watts, 1989; Wils et al. , 1993). 52 Internation al Journal of Training and Development  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005. movement fall into personnel allocation systems. Assessment systems belong to employee appraisal systems. Mentoring/coaching and training/development opportunities are examples of broad training/development systems.Counselling/ discussions and career information systems are included in career development support systems. Individual compensation systems and ? exible bene? t plans can be categorized under employee compensation/bene? t systems. It is important to note that not all organizational career-related activities have the same appeal or provide the same bene? ts to all employees (Derr, 1986; Schein, 1978). Additionally, variation must be expected in terms of employees’ acceptance of their employers’ involvement in their career development (Portwood & Granrose, 1986; Rhebergen & Wognum, 1997). Only a few studies have examined what types of interventions are most appropriate for speci? c typ es of employees.Derr (1986) examined contemporary CD programmes, matching each programme with certain types of career success orientations, as presented in Table 3. This table shows that there are different types of career development programmes appropriate for speci? c career success orientations. For example, some programmes are appropriate only for Getting ahead people. However, empirical support for this matching was not provided. Building on this work, Watts (1989) conducted empirical research to see if non-managerial female workers preferred different organizational CD activities according to their types of career success orientation; no signi? cant differences were reported. Solid empiricalTable 3: Career development programmes and appropriate career types CD Programme Getting free Assessment centres Career counselling and coaching by managers Career counselling by others Career information centres Career information systems Career pathing Computer-aided instruction and infor mation systems Educational and professional development bene? ts Fallback-position transfers Flexible scheduling and bene? ts Family-related bene? ts High-potential identi? cation programmes Individual development plans Integrated career planning Job matching Job posting Lifelong employment Mentor programmes Succession planning Workshops and training events Orientation Getting balanced Getting high Getting ahead O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Getting secure O O O Note: Adapted from Derr’s career development programmes (1986: 255–258).  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005. Organizational Interventions 53 nowledge is not yet available for matching individual preferences with organizational interventions; further investigation is warranted. Nevertheless, different observations in relevant studies imply the following hypotheses: H1: People who have different career success orientations will show different preferen ces for career development interventions. H2: People who have the same career success orientation will show different preferences for career development interventions. Career development in Korean organizations Shifts in organizational behaviours are not culturally neutral. Although career dynamics are known to re? ect particular aspects of a culture (Derr & Laurent, 1989; Greenhaus et al. 2000), career literature has failed to account for career dynamics in diverse cultures. Very few studies have explored what the term ‘career’ means in an international context (e. g. Derr & Laurent, 1989; Hofstede, 1980; Triandis, 1989), and careerrelated perceptions and strategies have almost never been researched in third world countries (Counsell & Popova, 2000). In terms of ECD, most Korean organizations are at a very early stage (H. Kim, 2000). Employers have not yet felt the necessity to adopt ECD systems, and employees are not familiar with the meaning or implications of CD. On ly a very few large corporations have begun to introduce relevant interventions into their practice (H. Kim, 2000).Consequently, examples of ECD in Korean organizations are limited (e. g. Choi, 1994; Jung, 1991; J. S. M. Kim, 1992; K. H. Lee, 1996). Comprehensive information regarding the status of Korean organizational career development is not yet available. Korean literature based on several case studies (Choi, 1994; D. K. Lee, 1993; K. H. Lee, 1996) shows that a wide range of activities, such as promotion and advancement, job rotation and transfer, and job evaluation and performance appraisal, has been addressed. The literature reviewed indicates that organizational ECD is still viewed as a part of the human resource management function in Korea (H. Kim, 2000).Therefore, it is important that this study covers the full range of interventions, from direct ECD activities to indirect organizational interventions. Methodology A quantitative sample survey was designed to test research hypotheses on career success orientations. Data were collected from a sample of 1000 employees in a Korean wireless communications company. The sample was randomly selected from the company directory of 3003 employees, and the survey instrument was distributed and collected through the company’s intranet system. A 33. 7% response rate resulted, with 337 useable surveys returned. Table 4 shows the sample composition by demographic characteristics. The respondents’ ages were categorized into three groups: 20–29, 30–39, and 40 and above. The average age was just over 33.The range was between 22 and 56. Most respondents’ ages were between 30 and 39 (69. 4%). The respondents’ average years of work experience was 5. 42, ranging between less than 1 and 13. The largest respondent group was those who have worked for 4–6. 99 years (49%). Almost half of the respondents (48. 1%) were assistant managers, while 22. 8% were managers, 21. 7% were em ployees, and 7. 4% were senior managers. Respondents were predominantly male (89. 6%), and 78% of the respondents were married. The two major types of job were 29. 1% in marketing and 38. 6% in engineering. A majority of the respondents (63. 8%) had completed 4-year college courses, and 19. % had completed graduate school. The instrument consisted of two parts. The ? rst part identi? ed individuals’ career success orientations. A modi? ed Derr’s (1986) ‘Career success map questionnaire’ (CSMQ) was used, since this instrument was originally developed to identify ? ve types of career success orientation. The questionnaire was changed from a forced54 International Journal of Training and Development  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005. Table 4: Sample composition by demographic characteristics (n = 337) Demographic Age (M = 33. 29, sd = 5. 09) Category 20–29 years old 30–39 years old 40 years old and above Less than 4 years 4–6. 99 years* 7–9. 9 years* 10 years or more Employee Assistant manager Manager Senior manager Male Female Married Unmarried Marketing R&D IT Engineering Ad/Mgmt Internal ventures High school 2-year college 4-year college Graduate school Frequency 60 234 43 76 165 63 33 73 162 77 25 302 35 263 74 98 34 14 130 47 14 25 32 215 65 % 17. 8 69. 4 12. 8 22. 6 49. 0 18. 7 9. 8 21. 7 48. 1 22. 8 7. 4 89. 6 10. 4 78. 0 22. 0 29. 1 10. 1 4. 2 38. 6 13. 9 4. 2 7. 4 9. 5 63. 8 19. 3 Years of work experience (M = 5. 42, sd = 2. 77) Employment level Gender Marital status Type of job Education level * Months were converted to fractions of a year. choice instrument of thirty paired statements to a Likert-type instrument, in order to make it statistically possible to test its factor structures and reliability (given the lack of empirical information with regard to this instrument).The second part was developed to explore respondents’ preferred organizational interventions in? uencing employee caree r development. Thirteen types of organizational interventions (as summarized in Table 2) were used for this purpose. The instrument was translated into Korean, and a three-round cross-translation performed. The face validity and construct validity of the instrument were examined in a series of three-round pilot tests and instrument revisions. Through factor analysis, with the elimination of some items, the ? ve dimensions originally included emerged. Reliability, measured by Cronbach’s coef? cient alpha, was between 0. 56 and 0. 79: Getting high (0. 78), Getting secure (0. 72), Getting balanced (0. 9), Getting ahead (0. 59), and Getting free (0. 56). These results indicate some limitations in interpreting the data for Getting ahead and Getting free. To analyse collected data, descriptive statistics as well as inferential statistics, such as ANOVA or repeated measures analysis, were conducted. Results Two approaches were used to test the research hypotheses. First, differences in preferences between groups were examined. Second, differences in preferences within  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005. Organizational Interventions 55 each group were explored. The highest mean score among the ? ve types was deemed the dominant orientation for each individual.According to descriptive information regarding dominant career success orientations, each individual’s career success orientation was identi? ed. The sample consisted of 40% Getting free, 38% Getting balanced, 17% Getting high, 3% Getting ahead, and 2% Getting secure. Since Getting ahead and Getting secure obtained very small percentages, those two types were excluded from the analysis. Hypothesis 1: Differences in preferences between groups The Levene test of homogeneity of variances showed that several items, including succession planning, job posting/job matching, promotion and compensation systems, violated the assumption to conduct the ANOVAs. Those items were excluded from further analysis.As a result, the ANOVAs were conducted with the remaining nine items. The ANOVAs showed that the preferences for six organizational interventions differed signi? cantly according to respondents’ dominant career success orientation types, as presented in Table 5. According to post hoc comparisons using the Tukey test, most interventions were preferred more by Getting free than Getting balanced or Getting high. There were no signi? cant differences in downward mobility, assessment system, or career information system. Hypothesis 1 was partly supported. Hypothesis 2: Differences in preferences within groups Repeated measures analysis showed statistically signi? ant differences in Getting free preferences (Wilks’ Lambda = 0. 396, F = 13. 86) at the 0. 001 level across the 13 organizational interventions. According to post hoc pairwise comparisons using the Bonferroni test, succession planning, career paths, job posting/job matching, promotion, and training/development opport unities were signi? cantly more preferred than other interventions, while downward mobility and career information system were signi? cantly less preferred. Repeated measures analysis showed statistically signi? cant differences in Getting balanced preferences (Wilks’ Lambda = 0. 471, F = 9. 63) at the 0. 001 level across the 13 organizational interventions.According to post hoc pairwise comparisons using the Bonferroni test, job posting/job matching and training/development opportunities were signi? cantly more preferred than other interventions, while downward mobility and career information system were signi? cantly less preferred. Repeated measures analysis showed statistically signi? cant differences in Getting high preferences (Wilks’ Lambda = 0. 423, F = 4. 42) at the 0. 001 level across the 13 organizational interventions. According to post hoc pairwise comparisons using the Bonferroni test, succession planning, career paths, and promotion were signi? cantly mo re preferred than other interventions, while downward mobility was signi? cantly less preferred.Overall, hypothesis 2 was supported. Discussion of ? ndings Different types of work, pay/bene? ts, promotion systems, and types of recognition motivate individuals who have different needs (Derr, 1986; Schein, 1990). The ? ndings of this study mostly support this assertion. That is, Korean employees’ career success orientations seem to impact their preferences for organizational interventions in? uencing employee career development. Even within each speci? c career orientation group, some interventions were preferred over others. The ? ndings regarding preferences for the 13 organizational interventions in? uencing employee career development are discussed in detail below.Though the differences in preferences for succession planning among three groups (Getting free, Getting balanced, and Getting high) could not be compared due to violations of homogeneity of variance assumptions fo r ANOVA, within-group 56 International Journal of Training and Development  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005.  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005. Table 5: Preferences for organizational interventions in? uencing ECD by career success orientation Organizational interventions in? uencing ECD Getting free (n = 121) Mean 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Succession planning Career paths Job posting/job matching Promotion Downward mobility Job rotation Assessment system Mentoring/coaching Training/development Career counselling Career information system Compensation system Flexible bene? t plans 5. 65 5. 58 5. 43 5. 62 3. 98 5. 7 5. 25 5. 27 5. 55 5. 38 5. 05 5. 40 5. 50 sd 1. 06 0. 96 1. 03 0. 90 1. 49 1. 09 0. 97 1. 03 0. 95 0. 96 1. 06 1. 05 1. 04 Getting balanced (n = 115) Mean 5. 21 5. 25 5. 31 5. 29 4. 24 4. 93 4. 98 4. 95 5. 31 5. 00 4. 89 5. 09 5. 31 sd 1. 07 1. 02 0. 93 1. 01 1. 35 1. 18 0. 95 1. 06 1. 05 1. 07 1. 08 1. 05 1. 05 Getting high (n = 51) Mean 5. 24 5. 29 5. 10 5. 22 4. 04 4. 43 4. 90 4. 73 5. 06 4. 76 4. 73 5. 00 5. 06 sd 0. 79 0. 81 0. 83 0. 73 1. 30 1. 17 0. 90 1. 02 0. 90 0. 89 0. 85 0. 75 0. 93 – F = 3. 76* – – F = 1. 07 F = 5. 66** F = 3. 38* F = 5. 80** F = 4. 84** F = 8. 27** F = 1. 89 – F = 3. 51* *p < 0. 05 **p < 0. 01 ***p < 0. 01 Between group comparison Organizational Interventions 57 Within group comparison Wilk’s Lambda = 0. 396 F = 13. 86*** Wilk’s Lambda = 0. 471 F = 9. 63*** Wilk’s Lambda = 0. 423 F = 4. 42*** comparison indicated that both Getting free and Getting high groups signi? cantly preferred this intervention over other options, such as job rotation, assessment system, mentoring/coaching or career information system. Derr’s (1986) assertion that succession planning would be appropriate only for the Getting ahead orientation was not con? rmed; this intervention seems to be favourably accepted by both Getting free and Getting high orientations. It was r anked ? st by Getting free, and second by Getting high in rank orders. Career paths were preferred signi? cantly more by the Getting free than the Getting balanced group. Since career paths provide individuals with the opportunity to follow their own career goals, it is understandable that people who want freedom would be in favour of this intervention, while the Getting balanced orientation maintains a need for ? exibility (Derr, 1986; Schein, 1978). Interestingly, there was no signi? cant difference in preferences for career paths between Getting high and Getting balanced. However, Getting high preferred career paths over the other intervention options.Derr (1986) suggested that career paths would be appropriate for Getting free and Getting high; this was partially con? rmed by the study. Group differences in job posting/job matching and promotions could not be explored due to violations of the assumptions for ANOVA. However, Getting free and Getting balanced, respectively, signi? cantly preferred job posting/job matching over job rotation. It is assumed that the Getting free orientation seeks a position with more autonomy, while Getting balanced seeks a position that accommodates personal values in family and relationships through announced open job opportunities (Derr, 1986). Getting free and Getting high signi? antly preferred promotion over job rotation, assessment system, mentoring/coaching, career counselling, and career information system. It seems that the Getting free and Getting high orientations desire some level of status that allows them to make decisions based on personal interests. There was no signi? cant difference in preferences for downward mobility, assessment system, and career information system among the groups. However, downward mobility was consistently the least preferred intervention among the 13 options. Although people tend to pursue what they want, they naturally do not want to give up their current levels of income and responsi bility. Derr (1986) claimed that career information system may be appropriate for Getting free and Getting high, but o difference was found between the groups studied. Moreover, this intervention was not particularly preferred within any of the groups. Getting free ranked it 12th, Getting balanced ranked it 10th, and Getting free ranked it 9th in rank order. Considering that the concept and necessity of career development are still relatively new in Korea (H. Kim, 2000), respondents may not be familiar with such ideas or aware of some systems’ potential bene? ts for individual career goals, which may be manifested in low preference results. Job rotation was signi? cantly less preferred by the Getting high orientation than by Getting free or Getting balanced.Since it is very important for Getting high individuals to keep jobs which they can truly enjoy (Derr, 1986), these people are likely to be reluctant to move to a new function or area. Mentoring/coaching and career counsel ling were preferred signi? cantly more by Getting free than by Getting high or Getting balanced. Although Derr (1986) assumed that career counselling and mentoring programmes would be appropriate for Getting balanced, this was not con? rmed in this study. These interventions did not seem to be attractive to the Getting balanced group; they are in the middle rank. It seems that Getting free individuals may maintain positive attitudes toward sharing career issues, and want to be guided by someone who can help them. Getting balanced individuals may not have speci? career aspirations that can be shared with others at work, since they view careers in relation to other dimensions of their lives. Training/development opportunities and ? exible bene? t plans were preferred signi? cantly more by Getting free than by Getting high. Although Derr (1986) and Watts (1989) viewed training/development as appropriate for all three (Getting free, Getting high, and Getting balanced) groups, our study showed that Getting free particularly 58 International Journal of Training and Development  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005. preferred this intervention. Getting balanced, as a group, preferred training/ development opportunities over assessment system, mentoring/coaching, and career counselling.This result supports the characteristics of the Getting balanced orientation, which pursues self-development in order to remain competent at work (Derr, 1986). According to descriptive statistics, ? exible bene? t plans were also one of the most preferred interventions by Getting balanced, consistent with the arguments of S. Y. Kim (1995), Igbaria et al. (1991), and McGovern & Hart (1992). Individual compensation system could not be compared between the groups. A comparison of preferences for this option within groups showed that respondents signi? cantly preferred compensation system only over downward mobility and career information system.The lower popularity of this option in all grou ps may be due to characteristics of Korean society and organizations (Bae & Chung, 1997). Although Korean society has been changing, teamwork and family spirit are still deeply rooted in its culture (Koch et al. , 1995), which may have led respondents to be reluctant to place value on this option. Limitations of the study This study was limited to one large Korean company; it may be dif? cult to generalize the ? ndings of this study to other organizations in different cultures. Second, there may be limitations to the instrument, since it was originally developed in the context of western cultures.The instrument may contain culturally sensitive items that were not detected in the researcher’s efforts to validate the instrument, conduct pilot tests, and obtain feedback. Finally, at least two of the scales had lower-thandesired reliability. Implications of the study There were some theoretical efforts to link individual career orientations with preferences for career development interventions, though empirical evidence is lacking. The ? ndings of this study can contribute to the validation of theoretical discussions on the association of individuals and organizational career development interventions. From a practical perspective, at the organizational level, the ? dings of this study imply that organizations may want to design their career mobility systems or performance incentive systems in accordance with employees’ career orientations. At the individual level, the study points out workers’ responsibility to know their personal needs, biases and motives. Knowledge of one’s own values and beliefs can serve as a basis for future career decisions, and for the development of appropriate career strategies (Aryee et al. , 1994). Recommendations for further research Organizational perspectives on the career orientations of employees deserve examination. Determining which types of career orientation are preferred by organizations may lead t o a new research question.This would necessitate the expansion of the data source to a broad set of organizations with different social backgrounds. Patterns of orientation in relation to preferred career development interventions may also be affected by organizational characteristics and cultures. References Arthur, M. B. and Rousseau, D. M. (eds) (1996), The boundaryless career: A new employment principle for a new organizational era. NY: Oxford University Press. Aryee, S. , Chay, Y. W. and Tan, H. H. (1994), An examination of the antecedents of subjective career success among a managerial sample in Singapore. Human Relations, 47, 5, 487– 509.  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005. Organizational Interventions 59 Bae, K. and Chung, C. 1997), Cultural values and work attitudes of Korean industrial workers in comparison with those of the United States and Japan. Work and Occupations, 24, 1, 80–96. Baruch, Y. (2004), Managing careers: Theory and practice. Harlow, UK: Pren tice-Hall. Choi, Y. S. (1994), A study on the career development program. Unpublished master’s thesis, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea. Counsell, D. and Popova, J. (2000), Career perceptions and strategies in the new market-oriented Bulgaria: an exploratory study. Career Development International, 5, 7, 360–8. Delong, T. J. (1982), Reexamining the career anchor model. Personnel, 59, 3, 50–61. Derr, C. B. (1986), Managing the new careerists. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Derr, C. B. and Laurent, A. 1989), The internal and external career: a theoretical and crosscultural perspective. In M. B. Arthur, D. T. Hall and B. S. Lawrence (eds), Handbook of career theory (pp. 454–71). NY: Cambridge University Press. Driver, M. J. (1979), Career concepts and career management in organizations. In C. L. Cooper (ed. ), Behavioral problems in organizations (pp. 79–139). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Driver, M. J. (1980), Career concepts and organizationa l change. In C. B. Derr (ed. ), Work, family and the career: new frontiers in theory and research (pp. 5–17). NY: Praeger. Driver, M. J. (1982), Career concepts: A new approach to research. In R. Katz (ed. ), Career issues in human resource management (pp. 23–32).Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Gattiker, U. E. and Larwood, L. (1989), Career success, mobility and extrinsic satisfaction of corporate managers. The Social Science Journal, 26, 1, 75–92. Greenhaus, J. H. , Callanan, G. A. and Godshalh, V. M. (2000), Career management (3rd edn). Orlando, FL: Dryden Press. Gutteridge, T. G. , Leibowitz, Z. B. and Shore, J. E. (1993), Organizational career development: Benchmarks for building a world-class workforce. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Hall, D. T. (1976), Careers in organizations. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman. Hall, D. T. (2002), Careers in and out of organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hall, D. T. nd Associates (eds) (1996), The career is dead â⠂¬â€œ long live the career: a relational approach to careers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Hofstede, G. (1980), Culture’s consequences. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Igbaria, M. , Greenhaus, J. H. and Parasuraman, S. (1991), Career orientations of MIS employees: an empirical analysis. MIS Quarterly, June, 151–69. Iles, P. (1999), Managing staff selection and assessment. Buckingham: Open University. Jaskolka, G. , Beyer, J. and Trice, H. (1985), Measuring and predicting managerial success. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 26, 189–205. Jung, I. L. (1991), The study on the career development program. Unpublished master’s thesis, Hoseo University, Kwangjoo, Korea. Kim, H. 2000), Kyunreok kebalui ilonkwa silje [Theory and practice for career development in Korea]. Seoul, Korea: Tasan. Kim, J. S. M. (1992), A study of career development and success factors of expatriates in Korea. Unpublished master’s thesis, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea. Kim, S. Y. (1995), Career anchor and organizational effectiveness. Unpublished master’s thesis, Dongguk University, Seoul, Korea. Koch, M. , Nam, S. H. and Steers, R. M. (1995), Human resource management in South Korea. In L. F. Moore and P. D. Jennings (eds), Human resource management on the Paci? c Rim: Institutions, practices, and attitudes (pp. 217–42). NY: de Gruyter. Lee, D. K. 1993), A study on the organizational effectiveness by career development program for employees. Unpublished master’s thesis, Sogang University, Seoul, Korea. Lee, K. H. (1996), A study on the career development program. Unpublished master’s thesis, ChungAng University, Seoul, Korea. McGovern, K. R. and Hart, L. E. (1992), Exploring the contribution of gender identity to differences in career experiences. Psychological Reports, 70, 723–37. Noe, R. A. , Hollenbeck, J. R. , Gerhard, B. and Wright, P. M. (1996), Human resource management: Gaining a competitive advantage (2nd edn). Boston, MA : Irwin McGraw-Hill. Portwood, J. D. and Granrose, C. S. (1986), Organizational career management programs: What’s available? What’s effective?Human Resource Planning, 9, 3, 107–19. Rhebergen, B. and Wognum, I. (1997), Supporting the career development of older employees: an HRD study in a Dutch company. International Journal of Training and Development, 1, 3, 191–8. Schein, E. H. (1978), Career dynamics: matching individual needs and organizational needs. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Schein, E. H. (1990), Career anchors: Discovery your real values. San Diego. CA: University Associates. 60 International Journal of Training and Development  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005. Triandis, H. C. (1989), The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96, 506–20.Van Maanen, J. and Schein, E. (1977), Career development. In J. R. Jackman and J. L. Schuttle (eds), Improving life at work (pp. 30–95). Santa Monica, CA : Goodyear. Watts, G. A. (1989), Identifying career orientations of female, non-managerial employees at Virginia Tech. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1989). Dissertation Abstracts International, A50, 05, 1223. Wils, T. , Guerin, G. and Bernard, R. (1993), Career system as a con? guration of career management activities. The International Journal of Career Management, 5, 2, 11–15.  © Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005. Organizational Interventions 61

The Plight Of The Artist in Modern Drama, A Study on Bernard Shaw's Essay

The Plight Of The Artist in Modern Drama, A Study on Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion - Essay Example Several times in the drama, Mrs. Pearce and Mrs. Higgins, Henry Higgin’s mother, asked Henry Higgins what will become of Eliza after her transformation (Shaw). Higgins does not find these concerns as more important than his goal of transforming Eliza into a Duchess in manners and speech (Shaw Act 2). His attitude shows lack of apathy for the plight of a woman whose life he is changing (Nienhuis 3). He does not have the breeding of a human being, only the intellect of an academic expert. Olukayode A. Afolabi would have described Higgins as lacking in emotional intelligence because he cannot monitor his feelings and the feelings of others to respond positively (126). Higgins has the plight of person versus social codes of conduct. A number of scholars discuss the plight of the heroine. Nienhuis also discusses Eliza’s plight in the story. He explains that Eliza’s plight is that, because she has been transformed from a lower-class woman to an upper-class one, she believes she cannot fit any. Upper-class life is too sophisticated for her, while lower-class living is no longer sufficient (Nienhuis 3), which shows Eliza’s common sense as a humane person (Mellor 345). This matches Social Identity Theory, where people interact with other groups through their social identity more than their individual identity (Sindic and Reicher 114). Eliza sees herself more as part of another class that is in-between two worlds. Her plight is also with her love life and the direction she wants after being transformed. At the end of the play, Eliza gets angry at Higgins for being so insensitive, and largely because of how he mistreats her as a â€Å"social inferior† (Nienhuis 3). It shows the person-versu s-person conflict because of different perceptions on how people should be treated. Neelam and Rao assert that Eliza has the life force of an independent woman that allowed her to surpass the conflicts in

World War II Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

World War II - Essay Example The war mainly caused many economic consequences that resulted in some affected countries lagging behind in development to the extent of not regaining their economic power even many years after the war. The main origin of this war was the creation of the German-Japanese-Italian alliance in the early 1930s. The formation of this alliance was with sole intention of expanding their boundaries by conquering their weaker neighbors. The older colonial powers such as Britain, Holland, and France were not impressed by this move from their rivals. Italy and German had entered into the colonial scramble like their rivals but because they developed late, they lacked the best territories that were strategically placed. The little territories they managed to acquire did not satisfy their increasing demands to expand their boundaries due to the little economic significance that the territories possessed. Tension arouse as the Triple Alliance, Germany, Italy, Japan and Hungary wanted to expand their territories by any means possible even if it was by conquering the Triple Entente’s, Britain, France and Russia, territories. The Triple Alliance wanted to conquer these territories due economi c reasons. Most of these territories were rich in minerals such as gold, diamond, and silver. These territories also had rich and fertile lands that the Triple Alliance realized would be useful to cultivate crops that would provide raw materials for their factories (McDonough, 1997). After the First World War, there was a critical breakdown in the international payments system. The production levels in many countries fell, thus affecting the international trade. Rich minerals such as gold was only concentrated in the hands of the capitalists nations such as Britain, USA, France and their allies. Despite the fact that they possessed plenty of gold, these specific nations were also in control of major resources and raw materials all over the world. This economic factor led to a

LOrea Company Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

LOrea Company - Essay Example L’Oreal is renowned for its overseas expansion processes and continues to expand its operations in various countries across the world. L’Oreal is one of the largest players in the cosmetics industry and focuses extensively on increasing their market share and profitability by capturing a heterogeneous variety of markets all across the globe. The global expansion processes should be categorised effectively by proper market research to understand the feasibility of launching different products according to the market demands. From the analysis of host markets’ selection criteria, it can be concluded that the company can enjoy a premium product market in the developed countries such as USA and UK. The buying behaviour of most customers of cosmetic products in these two markets is characterised by luxurious and high-end beauty products. The Asia-Pacific market is also developing, where the company can penetrate through products of wide price ranges as the target cust omers in this market are from different income levels and have different buying behaviours and lifestyles. From the macro environment analysis of host markets it can be concluded that the political and economic scenario of developed markets such as USA and UK are favourable for their business whereas mainly the political scenario in developing countries such as India and China are less favourable for foreign player entrants in these market.

The Transformation of Mine Protected Vehicles (MPV) in the Army Essay

The Transformation of Mine Protected Vehicles (MPV) in the Army - Essay Example In U.S. Army, it also comes as a control vehicle for remote-controlled detection equipment and as a clearance machine. It ensures worldwide logistic and maintenance support using the original manufacturer's warranties with the use of a commercial drive train and components. The Cougar is a versatile, 4x2, 4x4 or 6x6 multi-purpose vehicles with a wide range of configuration to a large variety of mission requirements like mine-protected personnel transport vehicle. The purpose-built monosque capsule is mainly designed to protect the personnel, transmission and the engine not only from ballistic but mine or blast threats. It has a mine or blast protection for the tires against approximately 13kg TNT and for the centre against approximately 6.8kg TNT, as claimed by the manufacturer. Dingo 2 is a light mine-proof vehicle based on the well-known commercial Unimog chassis by Daimler Chrysler. This concept ensures excellent mobility in any type of terrain with low-cost procurement and low lifecycle costs. Daimler Chrysler's worldwide service network provides an excellent support services for this vehicle. The hull is designed to withstand the detonation of anti-tank mines. Mine-protected vehicles made to ord

Economics Supply and Demand of Gasoline Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Economics Supply and Demand of Gasoline - Essay Example The paper tells that the gasoline price has ostensibly undergone extensive fluctuations mainly because of the product nature and the industry which supplies the world with oil. Note that a bulk of the aggregate oil output is produced by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). This influential group is organized as a cartel and composed of nations in the Middle East including United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait among others. The main produce of these countries is oil and other petroleum products. Other countries, including the United States, are largely dependent on these countries for their oil supply. With their rich oil resources, these nations created the cartel which has the ability to control member countries' oil production capacity and output quotas enabled them to collude to raise the oil price by. Given its mandate, a supply of oil including gasoline is significantly affected by political unrest arising between these oil-exporting countries and o ther countries as well. To illustrate this point, a supply of petroleum products was adversely affected by the war between Iran and Iraq in 1979. This tumultuous battle between two of the largest oil producers had caused a global oil supply shock and resulted in a dramatic increase in the price of oil. The limited oil supply then was further aggravated by the restricted means of transporting oil products to the rest of the world. Similarly, Iraq's invasion of Kuwait that spawned the Gulf War also caused a leftward shift in the supply curve during early 1990's. Aside from wars, OPEC also has the power to impose sanctions by restricting the supply of oil production to other countries in light of political reasons. For instance, the cartel initiated an embargo on export oil and cut down supply as an indication their protest for western nations' support of Israel. This caused a sharp leftward shift in oil supply curve and ultimately resulted in the severe escalation in the price of oil in 1973. In terms of domestic supply, the United States recently encountered supply shortages brought about by Hurricane Katrina. It is reported that the calamity has adversely impacted the supply chain from the off-shore rigs in the Gulf Coast, which is the largest source of oil for the domestic market. The short-term shutdowns due to power outages during the peak of the hurricane-affected two major on-shore pipelines. Furthermore, it was reported that at least 10% of the country's refining capacity was not operational in the wake of the storm. Apart from these, Louisiana, the epicenter of the hurricane and heavily devastated, also houses one of the main ports that serves as one of the most important inlets for oil imports. This means that supply is not only affected by the factors affecting actual production but also by the transportation of oil products.

Effects of health education intervention on patients knowledge, Essay

Effects of health education intervention on patients knowledge, attitude and health behaviour in asthma - Essay Example However, findings are unlikely to be generalizable to patients with asthma in whom a complex interplay of factors complicate management and who are therefore often excluded from or fail to attend standard research. Asthma is the most common medical chronic disease in western society. Despite advances morbidity rates are increasing. According to a study from Harty et al (2003), in 1996 a threefold increase in prevalence over a decade was demonstrated in Irish schoolchildren aged four to nineteen years of age that reflect the early childhood years when asthma tends to be more prevalent and hospital add mission rate tend to be higher. Otherwise, deaths due to asthma are uncommon and most of the deaths occurred in people over 65 years. In the 5 to 34 year age group, there was a rise in the death rate in the early to mid 1980s, peaking in 1986, and then decreasing (Glasgow et al, 2003). However, Asthma is a chronic inflammation of the bronchial tubes (airways) that causes swelling and narrowing (constriction) of the airways (Bell et al, 2000). The result is difficulty breathing. The bronchial narrowing is usually either totally or at least partially reversible with treatments. Bronchial tubes that are chronically inflamed may become overly sensitive to allergens (specific triggers) or irritants (non-specific triggers). The airways may become twitchy and remain in a state of heightened sensitivity. It is likely that there is a spectrum of bronchial hyperreactivity in all individuals. However, it is clear that asthmatic patients and allergic individuals (without apparent asthma) have a greater degree of bronchial hyper reactivity than non-asthmatic and non-allergic people. In sensitive individuals, the bronchial tubes are more likely to swell and constrict when exposed to triggers such as allergens, tobacco smoke, or exercise (Butz et al, 2006). Moreover, the frequency and severity of asthma is a serious health issue over the entire world, crossing all national, cultural, social, and economic boundaries (Johnson, 2003). Health education interventions should be a major component of treatment, as they have the ability to make significant impacts both in terms of public and practitioner policy as well as personal suffering (Cote et al, 2006). The symptomatic and lifestyle effect of asthma upon the patients can be debilitating. Accordingly, when assessing, planning and evaluating the care of the asthma patient, nurses and healthcare providers must be especially aware of the conditions, quality of life issues, and therapies associated with the disease. Further, because asthma involves significant patient self-help behaviour associated with most chronic diseases, education is vital. Accordingly, the issue of both practitioner and patient awareness is particularly significant: A health education initiative will have a positive impa ct upon these individuals. The fact that the onset of physiological responses can happen very quickly and, in severe cases, cause asphyxiation, means patient assessment should be based upon symptomatic presentation and observable behaviours. The frequency and

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Ulcerative colitis - Essay Example 2006). This paper will be divided into two main categories, whereby the first category will outline the characteristics and nature of Ulcerative Colitis. There will be a thorough discussion of what the disease is and what it is not in terms of its similarities and differences to Crohn's disease, as well as according to its prognosis. The second category will highlight the skills of a nurse necessary in managing patients affected by this disorder. In such, there will be a clear definition of the management and care that is justified with rationale and scientific explanation. The second category will also address the case study present. It is the intent of this paper to establish a complete understanding of the disease as well as the medical management aspect that is vital to the kind of care provided to patients. More than 500,000 Americans suffer each year from ulcerative colitis, Like Crohn's disease; it can be painful and debilitating and sometimes lead to life-threatening complications. This is according to the Mayo Clinic. Thus the case at hand presents Claire O'Brien, a 32 years old female admitted for possible bowel obstruction and passing of watery stools with bright red blood every 2 to hours. Initial diagnosis purports ulcerative colitis thus prompting the patient for immediate surgery, undergoing colon resection and formation of the colostomy. She is wheeled in to the ward under my care with an Intravenous Line, and has been ordered for a nasogastric tube insertion. Thus a question is raised at this point, what then is Ulcerative Colitis, and how does this disorder affect a person The answer lies in the discussion of the pathophysiology of this disease with emphasis to its etymology, symptoms and prognosis. Ulcerative Colitis is a non-specific inflammatory condition of the colon, a disease that begins often between the ages 20 and 25 years of age but may affect both young and old alike (Cotran, ET al.p776.1999). This tends to have flare-ups that later settles down again for variable amounts of time, yet it is possible to have a single attack. This disease usually begins in the rectum and spreads proximally, affecting primarily the mucosal layer, although it can extend into the lower submucosal layer. The length of proximal extension varies and may involve the rectum alone, thus called ulcerative proctitis, the rectum and sigmoid colon thus called proctosigmoiditis, or the entire colon otherwise known as pancolitis. The inflammatory process tends to be confluent and continuous instead of skipping areas, as it does in Crohn's disease. But unlike Crohn's disease that affects various sites in the gastrointestinal tract, Ulcerative Colitis is confined to the rectum and the colon. Both illnes ses though do have one strong feature in common. They are marked with an abnormal response by the body's immune system. The immune system is composed of various cells and proteins that protect the body from infection. With inflammatory bowel disease the immune system react inappropriately mistaking food, bacteria and other materials in the intestine for a foreign invading substance and thus

Effect of Globalization on Media Essay Example for Free

Effect of Globalization on Media Essay The globalization since it took over the whole world in its vintage has given new dimensions and shape to varying aspects of Media in its whole vicissitude. As transnational in character, media has crossed all the cultural and political boundaries to reach the world audience with depth in dimensions in the shape, style and pattern of various programs. These intercontinental and transnational media outlets have posed challenges to the boundaries, questioned the territorial integrity and given shape to the media spaces. When many of the media markets all over the world got saturated, the media companies began to look at the global market place to earn revenues for their own firms and industries and global audiences are kept in mind while generating media content. As the accounting and regulatory structures differ in different countries and there is no reliable global financial data, it presented challenge before the media economic researchers. The companies are competing in the global as well as in the domestic market to gain a maximum share of audience and advertisers revenue. The whole gamut of programs seems to be seen as the representation of commercial interests of the bureaucratic elite and rich at the expense of public opinion and democracy. Views and opinions of the people to create their influence on the masses diminish when large media players do not hold themselves accountable to the state regulations. In other words, globalization has become an issue of privatization. Big market players are using the media to gain their commercial endeavors in the form of advertisements. In his Preface to â€Å"The Codes of Advertising† Sut Jhally said, â€Å"The symbolic dimensions of needing and culture and the economic dynamic of capital accumulation are symbiotically intertwined in the new communication age of advanced capitalism. † (1990) Here the advertisements act as the modern mediators between the end consumers and big conglomerates. Shoemaker and Mayfield (1987), for instance, underlined the view that â€Å"Sources of finance like advertisers are generally strongly influential on all aspects of News production and that a funder’s ideology is likely to have an ultimate effect on editorial’s decisions relevant to this ideology. †(McQual 1992: 113) Most of the media content also depends on the advertisers will, their commercial propositions and their market position. The advertisers offer the contents, which are friendly to the audiences and cater to their taste and liking. For e. g. Television soap operas function as advertisements aiming at attracting audiences to stay in tune. The scriptwriters in soaps use the strategies in their writing to keep the viewers on hold. An advertising industry has come under heavy criticism among groups such as Adbursters who accused industry of becoming a powered engine of most complex economic production system. Suggestions are being forwarded by many public interest groups to tax advertisers for their continuous intrusion in the mental space of audiences. The advertisers too are indirectly dependent on the changes in the demographical set up and society in its various shape and magnitude creating tremendous impact on the way media industries capture the moods of the their audiences. â€Å"They have an insatiable appetite for media related content and services and as people live longer and obtain more discretionary income, spending on media will likely rise. These shifts in audience composition and makeup will present new pressures on media firms to develop content that will appeal to these unique and differing audiences. † (Downing, McQuail, Wartella Schlesinger 2004: 299) Graham Murdock treats advertising more as a cultural and social phenomenon rather than economical. (Jhally, 1990: 3). But the social influence is only a smaller stroke in a big game of Media players. For the New York Times and other companies associated with Media, as said by Naom Chowsky, the products are audiences, and customers as corporate advertisers. The product of New York Times is the paper itself audiences buy and it becomes an information for advertisers and therefore for them, the audiences that buy the products themselves become products for advertisers and it is the advertisers that bring in revenue for the companies. (Shah 2008: online). It would be most appropriate to mention that advertising is a â€Å"Superstructural facade† (Jenks 2004: 299) as they just not only are the expressions of capitalism but also produces and reproduces it. Advertising has reduced the concept of public opinion to cherish the desire of acquiring capital rather than fulfillment of personal desire. In the words of Marx, â€Å"In bourgeois society the commodity-form of the product of labor or the value-form of the commodity is the economic cell-form. † (Jenks 2004: 299) Audiences too reciprocate the same way. A certain kind of close relationship is developed between audiences and advertisers. Advertisers have created an image a global way making social relation, as a form of commodity yet creating an incredible influence on the ideological perception of individualism and consumerism. And in this atmosphere, political economy too is opening only a new door on the old platform- a typical characteristic of capitalistic society, whereas the content of media is being modified to keep to the capitalist standard. There is a whole new concept of audience ratings, used by the media companies to make the plans of their programs schedule and for studying the success rate of programs and media products. Government agencies, Government authorities and public service media organizations act as basis for making adequate economic decisions, endorsing regulations, and controlling the mass communications. Audience ratings are merged with research and also used by advertisers as tools to identify their target audience and prepare media plan accordingly. But these rating systems are being criticized on the ground as said by Liina Puustinen in her working paper on â€Å"The Age of Consumer audience† that â€Å"they do not give an adequate image of the consumers and audiences, and they objectify people into numbers and faceless masses†. (Puustinen 2006: Online edition). Number of theories, like audience receptive theories have been propounded to reflect the attitude and perceiving nature of mass audiences, which are contradictory to the rating systems. The rating system only give information of how many people have watched any particular program or advertisement but not how they perceived the program and what value they give to it, therefore the theories rightly said that the rating systems do not accurately represent audience satisfaction. Hypodermic Needle Model states that the media players make the contents of any program, idea or information enter into the consciousness of the people. In other words, audiences are manipulated to the ideologies and thinking of the creator of media product. Hans Robert Jauss and Wolfgang Iser developed the Reception theory by studying the people’s attitude and their receptive tendencies toward programs. The theory delves on the way people adapt to various programs and play their role in actual analyzing of the text. Another theory Culmination theory too deepens down the audience approach on the sensitivity of the programs. If they watch too much of the violence, they would in the years to come make you less sensitive towards violence in the same way if violence towards women are watched on year to year basis then it would make you ultimately less insensitive towards the issue. The audience receptive theory deepens down to the study of the psychological patterns of the audiences and how they reciprocate and adopt the programs and how the media players mould the sensitivity of the audiences to receive what they show. Some critics state that these theories are only based on their preconceived notions and assumptions. For example in 1930’s one of the advertising executive said about radio audiences: â€Å"The typical listening audience for a radio program is a tired, bored, middle-aged man and woman whose lives are empty and who have exhausted their sources of outside amusement when they have taken a quick look at an evening paper. Radio provides a vast source of delight and entertainment for the barren lives of the millions. † (Media studies: Online) It is not just about radio audiences, but we can hear about it for several soap operas or quiz shows. Every human being has his tastes, liking and his own way of perceiving the things. Some may be critical and some may be appreciative. In this scenario, it is the way media players reach their target audience becomes the whole crux of their strategies and plans of their programs. To hit the right audience at the right time, right moment and right situation is the motive of media players around which the whole of media content depends. And it is the only way advertisers are attracted to use the media content for their valuable business propositions for these right audiences. Number of programs like â€Å"Pop Idol† created by impressionist music maestro Simon Fuller became the most popular format for the first show on the European TV and also reached the other continents as well. The craze of the Pop idol carried Americans, Canadians and Australians as American Idol, Canadian Idol and Australian Idol followed by Spanish bonanza â€Å"Operacion Triunfo†, making the Latin and South Americans also to come under their sway. Ipod, a melodious device of new generation and a complete new innovation being carried by the young and old alike in Shanghai as well as Innsbruck rapidly transferred to the new generations across the borders. It is quite true that if digital home cinema has gained so popularity in Japan then why it shouldn’t reach the other continents? Well, it has reached the homes of other continents. (Reding 2005: Online Edition) More than the spread of news, the world of music has imbibed in itself international facets in its thematic expression and lyrical notes. Music has reached new dimensions in the technological advancement. According to Steiner, â€Å"The totally new fact is that today any music can be heard at any time and as domestic background music. †(Nesbitt 2006: 103). The other programs are now more of sensational, individualist and reductionist in nature as these programs touches the heart of audiences. Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet studied how the voters made the decision during 1940 presidential election campaign and got their results published in paper The People’s Choice. They found out that information did not directly reach the consciousness of the audiences rather modified and passed down by the opinion leaders, which was again passed over to lesser active associates. In 2002, Anthony Giddens, a sociologist in the radio national broadcast made the people feel the essence of Globalization. He said, â€Å"Globalization is like a code-word standing for the reconstruction of our social institutions, going all the way through from the family, gender, sexuality (because after all the changing position of women is surely a global phenomenon as much as any other one) through the economy, the restructuring of business organizations, a restructuring of the nation and government, through the restructuring of international organizations†. (O’Regan 2002: Online edition) The politics since last 2300 years have been influencing the communication processes in the state. But since last few centuries, the relationship between politics and media is being seen in much controversial light than it was seen in the past and it is due to the political influence and control over the content of media and thereby their indirectly control over the public opinion. The political control over media reciprocates the views of Marx who said that media is a product of ruling elite wherein there is no scope of any alternative ideas. In Marx’s own words, â€Å"The class, which has the means of material production at its disposal, has control at the same time over the means of mental production, so that thereby, generally speaking, the ideas of those who lack the means of mental production are subject to it†. (Chandler 2000: Online) Marx further stated that mass media brings to the people’s consciousness false notions and ideas making media as a product of expressions of the ruling class. Graham Murdock too emphasized that economic factors play a determining role in the domination of ruling elite over media messages. The political economists look at ideological messages as superior to the economic criteria. (Chandler 2000: Online). In the 1966 article, Stein Rokkan brought into focus the two ways of decision making in the media circle: corporate system and numerical. In 1996, the whole of media was under the control of one or the other political party. But in the last two to three decades, we have seen number of changes in the way politics is being related to Media. Globalization has touched every sphere of human commodity from increasing a sense of risk to creating uncertainty. Interconnectedness in the global sphere increased the value of the humanity as a whole and an awareness of deep understanding and tensions between Global Diaspora, national and local perception of shared identities. (Gillespie, 1995: 3). It is no doubt a global village and we are all now a part of this global village where not only individual’s perception is taken into account but the perceptions of the whole in all its shades and dimensions is considered as the most virtuous and commercial proposition. REFERENCES LIST Chandler, D. 2000.Media as means of production in Marxist Media Theory. [Online] Available: http://www. aber. ac. uk/media/Documents/marxism/marxism03. html [13 May 2008] Chandler, D. 2000. Media as amplifiers in Marxist Media Theory. [Online] Available: http://www. aber. ac. uk/media/Documents/marxism/marxism05. html [13 May 2008] Downing, J. , McQuail, D. , Wartella, E. Schlesinger P. 2004. The SAGE Handbook of Media Studies. California, London New Delhi: SAGE Gillespie, Marie. 1995. Television, Ethnicity and Cultural Change. Routledge. Hjarvard, S. 2003. News Media and the Globalization of the Public Sphere. [Online] Available: http://www. kommunikationsforum. dk/default. asp? articleid=10761 [13 May 2008] Jhally Sut, P. 1990. The Codes of Advertising. Routledge. Jenks Chris, P. 2004. Urban Culture. Routledge. Johnson, P. 2004. Are the media playing politics? USATODAY. com. [Online] Available: http://www. usatoday. com/life/columnist/mediamix/2004-10-10-media-mix_x. htm Media Studies. Audience (Adapted from Steve Bakers Media Studies website) [Online] Available: http://www. northallertoncoll. org. uk/media/audience. htm McQuail, D. 1992. Media Performance: Mass Communication and the Public Interest. California, London New Delhi: SAGE Nesbitt, T. 2006. Global Media and cultural change. China Media Research, Chang, et, al, Intercultural Symposium on Cultural Globalization, 2(3): 103. O’ Regan, Mick. 2002. Media and globalisation. The Media Report. [Online] Available: http://www. abc. net. au/rn/talks/8. 30/mediarpt/stories/s678261. htm [13 May 2008] Puustinen L. 2006. The Age of Consumer-Audience. [Online] Available: http://209. 85. 175. 104/search? q=cache:FsxLpxbPeeQJ:www. valt. helsinki. fi/comm/fi/english/WP5. pdf+The+audience+reception+theories+on+ratings+systemhl=enct=clnkcd=5gl=inie=UTF-8 [16 May 2008] Rantanen T. 2005. The Media and Globalization. 1st Edition. California, London New Delhi: SAGE Reding, V. 2005. The Media and Globalisation. European Forum Alpbach [Online] Available: http://europa. eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction. do? reference=SPEECH/05/469format=HTMLaged=0language=ENguiLanguage=en

Employee Motivation Theories in Customer Service

Employee Motivation Theories in Customer Service Work is very important for every individual infect it is inevitable in the life of every person and every one want satisfaction in the work. Employees need satisfaction in the job and it is the responsibility of manager to understand their problems and find the way to satisfy them. The assumption is that a motivated worker will give his best performance to the organization as a result productivity of organization will increase and poor performance will be a forgotten issue in the organization. Managers can adopt different ways to motivate employees and managers who are successful in motivating employees providing an environment in which incentives are available for them which are much needed for the satisfaction of employees. Employees should have enough pay which motivate them and push them to work hard. Today manager cannot solely motivate employees through pay, benefit and reward to encourage them to work hard and efficiently. It is the responsibility of manager to develop environ ment in which employees motivated to become productive members of organization. This literature review will determines the main aims and objectives of the research considering a variety of literatures. It will provide us brief overview regarding extensive research in the field of employees motivation and its factors affecting the organization. This research is helpful to find out employees motivation of Sainsbury through different means. There are lots of researchers carried out the research in the field of employees motivation. Some of methods and ideas presented in literature review given theses researchers This literature review will give us the concept of employees motivation its importance and factors staff motivation and organization performance. Although many others researchers also conducted their research in this field but it was out of scope and i selected only those researches which were directly or indirectly related to my topic. In this chapter secondary research is mostly used the information is taken from books and journals. It will discuss the re levant theory on the topic and give the opinion that relate to employees motivation and commitment. Employees motivation and commitment is the most important topic in the field of Human Resource Management. In this chapter first we discuss the HR theory to understand about HR and then focus on employees motivation to increase customers services HR Research conducted in organizations suggests that HR affects organizational outcomes by shaping employees attitudes and behaviours. The high commitment of HR increases organization performance by giving environment in which employees are involved in organization and they work hard to achieve organization goals. (Whitener, E 2001) Research suggests that employees interpret organisational actions such as human resource practices, as symptomatic of the personified organisations commitment to them. They reciprocate their perceptions accordingly in their own commitment to the organisation. It is seen that high commitment to motivate employees work well for organization. Such organizations have high productively as compared to those which has low commitment. Before that Dean and Lepak also said the same opinion. According to Dean and Lepak (1996) HR is classified as control practices and its main purpose to increase efficiency and reduce labour in organization. Its aim to increase productivity and provide the environment for employees that help to achieve the goals of organization. The high commitment strategy of HR includes selective staffing development appraisal competitive packages and training of staff. According to Foot and Hook in 1999 the employees are most important resource which contributes to achieve organization goals. HR is very important in decision making process and it comprises a range of issues employee development, recruitment and reward schemes. Recruitment will give us qualified employees in order to achieve corporate goals in an efficient manner. But Beardwell (2004) has different opinion. He linked the organization performance to changes in different business environment including micro and macro contexts. He said our HR strategy must fit the Organization strategy According to Mullins successful HR has proactive role in organization. HR creates values by providing opportunities and his values are crucial for organization future success. It will increase the skill of current workforce and will recruit the highly skilled workforce 2.2Recruitment Recruiting the correct employees is important in employees motivation and they fit in the organization and have skills to fulfil the commitment. If an organization ignore the correct employees for the correct role than its economic cost can be immense. Beardwell (2004) and then Mullins (2005) emphasis on recruitment process of employees. Both said that employees should be technically fit to any given rule. Best companies are doing this for long time and ensure that selection process full assessment of candidates abilities, values, interest and careful review how they will match the organization culture. The ability to achieve competitive advantage in market is dependent on composition of workforce According to Armstrong (2001) there is pressure on organizations to recruit right people for right job. If they fail to does this then it will adverse effect on the budget of organization. There are number of factors which should consider in recruitment process including the culture of organization, legal implications, attracting and employing the correct candidate and the cost in time and resources. Before the Armstrong the Holden in (1994) emphasised on good HRM practice in recruitment and selection. The organization can use recruitment process to continue or even change the organization culture. When a change of strategic direction is required, recruiting the right candidates is an important factor to increase the chance of success Team working and job rotation Team working is important in organization. When employees in organization work together they share the ideas, motivate each other and help to increase the sales of organization. According to Cohen (1996) cited in Bacon, N Blyton, p 2003:14) when the human work together they create meaningful work. When humans work in a team they got higher job satisfaction according to job characteristics and management theories. The different tasks in team encourage workers to use different skills and rotation in job reduces in boredom of repetitive work. This helps team members to share the responsibility of work in their area and develop the skills essential for effective team work. In team employees participate in goal setting thereby motivation for team members According to Friedrich (1998) Job rotation is long term planning but it can be organized at short notice. Job rotation will support the employees abilities and interest but also their prospects for promotion. Task of job rotation should be explained to employees who can only be justified by corresponding benefits. Some employees will give resistance and refuse to give up job in which they are comfortable This happened during the research which I conducted in Sainsbury. Some employees were happy with their current position in Sainsbury while others were not happy with their role in Sainsbury. The first one will give resistance to give up their position Empirical Evidence on Employees Motivation Employee motivation is the biggest factor in the success or failure of an organization. Motivated workforce will give best output and productivity while without motivated workforce productivity, profit; morale, product and service all suffer. An organization should have effective strategy to motivate the staff and to stay competitive in the market. There are different factors to motivate individuals and all of them are motivated differently. Some of them are motivated by money other by the opportunity for professional development and job satisfaction. It is the responsibility of managers to understand what factors will motivate their employees to increase productivity. Employees motivation is closely linked to employees performance. By conducting the search in this manner the resultant articles were specific case studies of employee motivation in various organizations. The resultant case studies looked at a range of topics on both employee motivation and employee performance and how these constructs can be connected. One particular study looked specifically at the followers of an organization and what key factors a leader needs to know about the various types of followers. The case studies in this review expand upon the work of Maslow, Taylor, and Herzberg. Simms in (2007) discusses how various organizations utilize tailored versions of non-cash e rewards as employee incentives. Simms suggests that Herzbergs view of salary as not being a motivator holds. The ability to hold up an incentive that doesnt get absorbed by the employees monthly bills has a larger effect on employee motivation. He also suggests it may be more acceptable to boast about a special award or party rather than an employees salary raise. Simms then goes on to expand the discussion of non- cash rewards such as flex time, employee of the month, and tailored goal incentives. Simms argues it is important for employers to communicate these benefits to employees because many employees dont understand their total compensation package. By communicating the total package, the employer reinforces their commitment to the employees and helps to motivate the employee. This motivation leads to greater employee satisfaction and performance. The case study of the Harrahs Entertainment sales teams lays out the use of team incentives to increase sales across the various branches of the Harrahs Entertainment family of products. However, the core to the incentive packages, that Jakobson discusses, is the use of Merchandise Awards. Jakobson states that Merchandise Awards are even more effective than Top Seller Trips. Harrahs also uses simple employee motivation tactics such as recognition at weekly and monthly sales meetings of the top sales teams. Whiteling in (2007) looks at the cases of Reuters and supermarket giant Sainsburys to show how important it is to create a culture where employees become directly involved in suggestions for change. By creating a culture where employee input is valued and the changes faced by the organization are better understood and receive the support of the employees. This also has the side effect of creating employee motivation to support and accomplish the organizations goals and change efforts (Whiteling, 2007). Silverman in (2006) utilizes a similar strategy to create a high-performance workforce. Silverman suggests keeping employees engaged by working with storytelling. Employers can systematically ask employees to tell their story for good or not-so good situations. In this way, an employee/employer relationship can be forged which can help foster mutual support and idea sharing. Similar to Whiteling, Silverman suggests that the organizations culture needs to be developed around the concept of storytelling. Employees need to feel their stories are being heard, understood, and valued by those requesting the stories. By forging these relationships, the employee feels valued by the employer, supervisor, and organization as a contributor. This value translates into higher work performance and stake within the organization (Silverman, 2006; Whiteling, 2007). Sharbroughs (2006) study looks at the correlations between leaders use of Motivating Language (ML) and employee job satisfaction and the perception of a supervisors effectiveness. In both cases, there was a statistically significant correlation in this study between a leaders use of ML and employee job satisfaction and the perception of a supervisors effectiveness. This correlation can be utilized by organizations to measure a leaders use of ML and determine levels of employee satisfaction as well as determine the perceived effectiveness of a supervisor Kellerman (2007) has expanded the work of Zaleznik, Kelley, and Chaleff to create what he calls a level of engagement to classify the followers of an organization. This employee continuum ranges from feeling and doing absolutely nothing to being passionately committed and deeply involved. In this way, a leader can assess their subordinates and tailor a leadership approach to maximize the affect a particular effort will have on employee motivation. A common thread of communication between employers and employees emerges as a requirement for employee motivation (Simms, 2007; Jakobson, 2007; Whiteling, 2007; Silverman, 2006; Sharbrough, 2006). Many of these case studies link high employee motivation with increased employee performance. By first utilizing Kellerman level of engagement classification, an organization can tailor the use of ML and motivational lltechniques in the organization. In this way, employee motivation can be maximized to increase employee performance by focusing the use of ML and motivational techniques Theories of motivation As we discussed that there are number of ways to motivate employees. Lots of researchers gave the theories of motivation. I will discuss most common theories. These theories will give us idea how we can motivate employees. All these theories have some common points to motivate employees but these theories also have different opinion Fredrick Winslow Taylor and Elton Mayo Theories of Motivation Fredrick Winslow Taylor (1856-1917) said that employees are mainly motivated by pay. His theory argued that workers need supervision because naturally they do not enjoy work therefore manager should break their work in small tasks and training and tools so they work efficiently on given task. They are than paid according to number of items they produced in a set period of time-price-rate pay. This will motivate them to work hard and maximise their productivity. Taylor method work well and different organization adopted this method to increase productivity level and lower unit cost. The most notably advocate was Henry Ford who used them to design the first ever production line, making Ford cars. This was the start of the era of mass production. Taylor theory has close links with autocratic management styles and Macgregor theory X approach. Taylor theory failed soon as workers became bore on repetitive tasks and they were treated like human machines. Elton Mayo than gave better theory he said workers are not only motivated with money by they could be better motivated if we met their social needs whilst at work. Taylor ignored these second points which cause adverse effect on his theory. He also conducted an experiment on two groups and examines the effect on their productivity levels of changing factors such as working condition. From Mayo theory we can conclude that employees are best by better communication between them and managers. Employees are also motivated by involvement of managers in their working lives. They are also motivated when they work in a team. Therefore Sainsbury should use team working and introduce personal department to involve managers to look employees to motivate them the increase the production Maslow theory of motivation Maslow in (1943) gave hierarchy of human needs based on two groupings: deficiency needs and growth needs. Within the deficiency needs, each lower need must be met before moving to the next higher level. According to Maslow employees have five levels of need physiological, safety, social, ego, and self- actualizing Once each of these needs has been satisfied, if at some future time a deficiency is detected, the individual will act to remove the deficiency. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Maslows_Hierarchy_of_Needs.svg/450px-Maslows_Hierarchy_of_Needs.svg.png Figure: Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (1) Physiological needs These include homeostasis such as need for oxygen satisfaction of thirst and hanger. It also include sleep and sexual desire (2) Safety needs These include security and safety. It covers security in all aspects of life. It also include security of family, property and morals (3) Love needs These include affection, sense of belonging, social activities, friendships, and both the giving and receiving of love. (4) Esteem needs These include both self-respect and the esteem of others. Self respect covers the strength independence and freedom and achievement. While esteem of others include status, reputation, appreciation and attention (5) Self- actualization needs This need includes the realization of potential of an individual. In this need we consider what is the potential of humans and what are they capable of becoming. These needs may vary widely from one individual to another. Maslow conceived a human being developing five groups of needs, in sequence, from one to five. The survival needs start at birth. During childhood everyone aware all groups of needs. If a manager wants to motivate his employees he should satisfy all five needs in his employees In Maslow theory once we achieved lower level needs like physiological and safety levels others does not provide same level of motivation. There are problems in Maslow theory relating to work situation. The higher level needs do not satisfy their needs because of work situation. It is the responsibilities of managers to understand their needs in private and social life not just their attitude at work. There is no time frame in Maslow theory when the satisfaction of lower level needs and emergence of higher level needs. Even the people within the same level of hierarchy there have different motivation factors. There are lots of ways in which people seek satisfaction for example their esteem needs Fredrick Herzbergs theory of motivation Fredrick Herzberg the friend of Maslow introduced two factor theory of motivation. He believed that there are certain factors that business can introduce which will directly motivate employees and work hard to increase productivity. He named such factors motivation and hygiene Motivator or intrinsic factors, such as achievement and recognition, produce job satisfaction. He said there are others factors which will not motivate them or they will not work hard. He named such factors hygiene factors. Hygiene or extrinsic factors, such as pay and job security, produce job dissatisfaction. According to Herzberg all these factors must present in any job because their absence will give dissatisfaction and decrease productivity and lead to strike in organization. Their presence will yield average productivity but not necessarily above the average. The challenge is that their presence does not motivate in a special way. Herzberg referred this group as dissatisfies. However second group existence will yield satisfaction and this include achievement, recognition, advancement and growth in job. According to Herzberg only way to motivate employee is through job enrichment Herzberg believed that democratic approach is the best approach to motivate employees by improving the nature of job through certain methods. Vroom and Skinner theory of motivation According to Vroom theory (1964) employees effort will lead to performance and performance and then reward should be given on the base of that performance. This reward can be positive or negative depending upon the performance of individual employee. It means that more positive reward will motivate employee highly. Conversely reward is more negative employee will less likely to motivated According to Skinner theory (1953) employees behaviour that lead to positive outcomes will be repeated and negative behaviour will not be repeated. Managers should reinforce employees behaviour that lead to positive outcome. Managers should negatively reinforce employee behaviour that leads to negative outcomes. Reward as motivational tools Payment is not the sole motivator factor for employees. They are more motivated the reward they receive of their hard work we should give employees certain incentives when certain goals are achieved. The two most common types of rewards are extrinsic reward and intrinsic reward. Extrinsic rewards are external rewards that occur apart from work such as money and other things. On the other hand intrinsic rewards are internal rewards in this reward there is direct connection between reward and work and employee feel it during his job. According to Thomas (2000) now rule of motivation has changed. Employees are not motivated through their supervision. They are becoming self managed and they want to demonstrate their own innovation at the work place. Since new motivation factors have emerged so employees want reward of their work. Some of them motivated even they receive positive feedback about their work. Mullins in (2005) said employees have common motivational factors although when satisfied will lead to different level of motivation. If the reward is managed correctly both extrinsic and intrinsic reward will motivate employees. However it is not guarantee that employees will motivated through reward those who receive less reward will feel undervalued and will not be motivated Beardwell and Holden (1994) also emphasised the reward system in the motivation of employees. They said that the payment received by employers is not just one factor which can motivate them. Employees can create an environment that motivate them by providing resources, information and emotional support and some are motivated by fear of loss i.e. they will fired and loss their support if they are late from the job. There are lots of employees which do best when their salary increase According to Redshaw (2001) there are six factors that can motivate employees (1) Training; it is most important to all employees skills replacing job for life time. (2) Financial rewards; employees are motivated through any means which help them financially. It can be useful in Sainsbury. He can give his employees discount vouchers. (3) Recognition; the employees need to know they, reassurance of their role, enforcing corporate norms and values. (4) Communication; managers should regularly communicate with employees. All the employees should have access to managers. Managers should held weekly meeting and regular meeting with employees. (5) Alignment; There is a direct relationship between motivation and an individuals ability to contribute, therefore make all employees aware of the contribution they bring to the organisation (6) Leadership; employees should have their own leader to discuss their concern with him Heap (1987) gave the advantages and disadvantages of the reward system. My companies considered that the reward system has both advantages and disadvantages. In 1999 Thompson and Sanders showed that the companies which give attention to the main objectives of their program like cost, customer service, schedule, environment and quality are deemed success of any incentive programme According to Makenzie and Lee rewards are distribute to those who perform at given level. These rewards should be available to everyone in the organization from top management to workers. These rewards can be linked directly to quality safety, performance and absenteeism. These rewards must be given on successful performance. Different companies motivate their employees through different means. Some companies feel that money is a good motivator. Many companies offer profit sharing plans and offer trips to Europe and other islands Turkson (2002) there are different types of incentives plans which can motivate employees. It can be annual performance bonus. It can also profit sharing plan. Every different kind of incentive plan has benefits and drawbacks. The annual performance bonus is once in a year so it is hard to link it with performance. This type of incentive plan also tends to cause to employees to focus on what makes them look good, sometimes at the expense of what may be best for the companys bottom line These rewards programmes are expansive these programs require careful monitoring. Some companies give reward with an extra day off with pay. Others companies provide good working condition and give reward on top performance. The performance level must be achievable. An incentive scheme may also fail if we ignore the quality or safety. Incentives should be linked with performance but we cannot apply this rule every time. Some incentives are issued on the basis of a subjective assessment by a superior on the merit of particular workers Types of motivation Extrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation is inspired by outside forces. It includes the money, rewards and people which are close to us. Lots of researchers gave their view about extrinsic motivation and gave different view about it Mullins and Armstrong said that extrinsic motivation can be related to tangible rewards such as security, benefits, promotion, condition of services and environment. These are most likely out of control from managers and determined at the organizational level. This kind of motivation has powerful effect on employees but it will not last long. Bernard and Stoner (2005) said that salary, wages and conditions of services are the incentives for employees. Managers should use four components of salary structure to use salary as motivator effectively. These are (1) job rate: which organization set for each job. (2) Payment: which should be given to individual according to their performance which motivate them and encourage them to work hard (3) Personal allowances: which should be given to those people who have particular skills. . According to Banjoko (1996) most managers use money to reward or punish employees. It can be done through reward on higher productivity and fear to loss job due to poor performance. The desire to earn enhanced pay will motivate employees. In any organization higher productivity depends on level of motivation in employees of organization. We can also motivate staff through training it will give staff the opportunities of self improvement to meet the challenges of higher productivity and new techniques performing a task Intrinsic motivation This motivation is inspired from within a person. This motivation includes personal goals, happiness, morals, eagerness to learn, social and self esteem needs. Both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators push person to achieve the targets. But both these motivators achieved target in different ways. According to Mullins (2005) intrinsic motivation is the opportunity to use the ability of individual. In this motivation sense of challenge, achievement and positive recognition treated with considerate manner. Psychological rewards are usually determined by the behaviour of individual managers. Armstrong (2006) the quality of work life is essential for intrinsic motivators and they have long term effect because they are inherent in individuals and they are not imposed from outside Effect of motivation on productivity Productivity of an organization depends on the motivation of its staff. Organization will achieved its goals through motivated staff and gain market share which will help to increase the production of the organization. Sainsbury can gain market share and increase its productivity through motivation of its staff Mojahed (2005) defined productivity as the ratio of output and input. The economists defined the productivity at industrial level to determine the economy, health and growth rate while at project level it define as and applies to planning, cost estimating and cost control. According to Heizer and Render (1999) numbers of factors affects the productivity of employees and education is one of them. Social overhead and diet of the employees also affect the productivity of employees. But Wiredu (1989) said others factors like team building, motivation job security and training also affect the productivity of employees. We cannot increase productivity of employees without enhancing the skills of them. Working in safe environment and stronger commitment also affect labour productivity Effects of Motivation on Performance The performance of employees is very important for every company. It will make or break a company. It is important to motivate employees and find different methods to motivate them. Stephen Robbins and David A. Decenzo wrote in their book Supervision Today money is most important form of motivation for employees but others motivation factors should also be considered. Every company has different employees and everyone is motivated for different reasons. It is important for managers to know her employees and understand what will motivate them. Managers should understand individual differences if they want successful in motivating people. As we know money is the most important factor to motivate employees but companies should also have other ways to motivate their employees. This involves getting to know their employees and what drives them, then making sure managers utilize appropriate motivational techniques with each employee. The employees performance will improve definitely when m anagers will use appropriate motivation technique Effects of performance management on motivation In every organization team does the work and performance of organization depends on the performance of the team. Therefore it is important for organization to get good performance from everyone. It is the responsibilities of managers to motivate them as a team and each individual separately. The enthusiasm of the manager motivates the team how work will be structured and agreed standard for getting there. The organization manager creates a climate of progress with their behaviour. Sainsbury should consider and evaluate the performance management of its top manager to motivate its employees and increase its productivity. Most organization like Sainsbury has performance management system. In any organization main purpose of performance management assist the management in the determination of pay rises and find how pay system will work in the organization and motivate the staff. Every employee in the organization understands the system and why he or she got the pay rise they did. Aim is that to develop staff and motivate them. The problem rises from this is that if manager want to develop its staff and ask about its weakness the employees will discuss some of its weakness. If the employees feel that manager is gathering the information for the next pay review he will hesitate to discuss its weakness According to Kaplan and Norton (2001) performance management is the backbone of HRM. In performance management we plan and implement the strategies and adopt different approaches to perform tasks. Performance management is beneficial in any business to work according to plan. According to Handel and Gentleman (2004 P.72) said that salary and wage system is big factor that will increase the performance of staff and motivate them. The performance management and production management are closely linked with each other. This is beneficial for staff and motivates them. Staff relationship working environment and culture are vital to motivate staff. It is the responsibilities of performance management to train them and polished their skills according to job requirement. Training is essential for both new and experienced workers otherwise organization can lose its profit and its workers will not be motivated if he did not train the employees. Armstrong and Baron said that prior duty of HRM department is to deal with performance management because performance management is the fundamental of HRM and it is responsibilities of manager to help the emp